When they are applied to real-life experience schemata may play role in our memory system in several ways. there are nine functions of schemata.
1. Knowledge representation. Schema represents all kinds of knowledge, from a simple knowledge about the shape of the letter 'A' to the more complex knowledge such as knowledge about picnic and politics, and knowledge about motor actions like driving a car.
2. Storage. Schema incorporate all different kinds of knowledge we have accumulated, including both generalization derived from our personal experience and facts we have been taught.
3. Retrieval. Schema are actively engaged in recognizing and interpreting new input. Bottom-up and top-down processes may go through repeated cycles, and the final interpretation of new inputs will depend on which schema constitutes the best fit for the incoming information. the memory of a scene in a restaurant might consist of the original observations - a diner refuses a dish brought to him, and the waiter takes it away; we might think that the customer was complaining that something was wrong with the food. This interpretation is based on our prior knowledge about possible way of behaving in restaurants.
4. Selection. The schema guides the selection of what is encoded and stored in memory. Information that is not relevant to the schema that is currently the most active may be ignored. So we may not remember what clothes we wore when we were taking an exam, because clothes are not relevant to the activated exam schema.
5. Abstraction. information in memory tends to undergo transformation from the specific to general. So if we try to recall the occasion of a particular visit to a restaurant we tend to recall the general features common to many such visit rather than the specific details of a particular visit. Only the general schema is retained in memory, while the particular episode is forgotten. that's why in remembering a story we tend to retain the general idea, not the exact wording.
6. Normalization. memory of events also tends to be distorted so as to fit in with prior expectations and to be consistent with the schema. they are therefore transformed toward the most probably, or most typical event of that kind. People may misreport an event they witnessed because they remember what they expected to see rather that what they actually saw.
7. Comprehension. Schema functions as a means of comprehension. To comprehend something is to select schema that provides a plausible account of it and thus allows us to assimilate it to something we know.
8. Integration. A knowledge representation in our memory is in an integrated form. it includes information derived from the current experience, prior knowledge which is related to it, and default values supplied by the schema.
9. Finally, schemata can affect how much we recall. If we have well-developed schemata for a domain, we may be able to take in and recall much more information.
Sabtu, 17 Desember 2011
Types of schema
schemata can be divided into a number of types. There are five types of schemata: scenes, events, actions, persons, and stories.
1. Scenes.
Scene schemata pertain to the arrangement of object is space. They encapsulate our knowledge, our expectations that object should be arranged in certain ways. Examples ar the face and body schemata. We expect their parts to be in certain places.
2. Events.
Scene schemata pertain to space and event schemata relate to time. They encapsulate our abstract knowledge about sequences of events. A simple example is boiling water. the events are prescribed. One puts water in an container, applies heat, and the water gets hotter and turns to steam.
3. Actions
This is a type of event schema, which represents only procedural knowledge . We have schemata for such routine actions as playing basket ball. An example is shooting a basket ball into a hoop. The schema consists of slots such as grasping the ball, steadying it for the toss by tensing muscles, judging the distance and force needed for the shot, and then actually throwing the ball. the slots in a certain order and can be filled with a variety of actual behavior.
4. Persons.
We use schemata to understand and predict the behavior of others. Probably we all develop a general person schema, which includes slots for motivations, interests, personality traits, etc. When we meet new people, we may instantiate this general schema.
5. Stories
Schemata are very important in understanding stories. We construct a specific schema of a given story. Some interesting research has suggested that wehave a very abstract story schema that is used to understand stories of all types. it has general slots for setting, main characters, and episodes.
1. Scenes.
Scene schemata pertain to the arrangement of object is space. They encapsulate our knowledge, our expectations that object should be arranged in certain ways. Examples ar the face and body schemata. We expect their parts to be in certain places.
2. Events.
Scene schemata pertain to space and event schemata relate to time. They encapsulate our abstract knowledge about sequences of events. A simple example is boiling water. the events are prescribed. One puts water in an container, applies heat, and the water gets hotter and turns to steam.
3. Actions
This is a type of event schema, which represents only procedural knowledge . We have schemata for such routine actions as playing basket ball. An example is shooting a basket ball into a hoop. The schema consists of slots such as grasping the ball, steadying it for the toss by tensing muscles, judging the distance and force needed for the shot, and then actually throwing the ball. the slots in a certain order and can be filled with a variety of actual behavior.
4. Persons.
We use schemata to understand and predict the behavior of others. Probably we all develop a general person schema, which includes slots for motivations, interests, personality traits, etc. When we meet new people, we may instantiate this general schema.
5. Stories
Schemata are very important in understanding stories. We construct a specific schema of a given story. Some interesting research has suggested that wehave a very abstract story schema that is used to understand stories of all types. it has general slots for setting, main characters, and episodes.
Some analogies of schema
A schema is like many things, and these analogies may provide a better understanding about the concept of schema.
1. A schema is like a sorting device.
A sorting device allows us to place some objects in one category and the rest in another, just as schema allows us to determine that some stimuli are instantiation and others are not.
2. A schema is like a play.
A play has various parts; the roles are played by actors. these roles can be filled by many different people, just as a schema's slot can be filled with many different stimuli. The part of a play relates to each other as specified by the script, just as a schema specifies relations between parts. A play's instantiation is a specific performance, just as an instantiation of the face schema is a certain face. A performance of a play is unlike any other, just as no face is quite the same as another. A play should also has a room for variation. It is often organized around a theme, such as marriage or coming of age.
3. A schema is like a filter.
It allows some information in but not all.
1. A schema is like a sorting device.
A sorting device allows us to place some objects in one category and the rest in another, just as schema allows us to determine that some stimuli are instantiation and others are not.
2. A schema is like a play.
A play has various parts; the roles are played by actors. these roles can be filled by many different people, just as a schema's slot can be filled with many different stimuli. The part of a play relates to each other as specified by the script, just as a schema specifies relations between parts. A play's instantiation is a specific performance, just as an instantiation of the face schema is a certain face. A performance of a play is unlike any other, just as no face is quite the same as another. A play should also has a room for variation. It is often organized around a theme, such as marriage or coming of age.
3. A schema is like a filter.
It allows some information in but not all.
Jumat, 16 Desember 2011
Characteristics of schema
1. Schemata have specific instantiations.A schema is an abstraction from experience and a representation. It applies to stimuli min the world. A schema can thus be instantiated. its slots can be filled with stimuli. If we had just bought a peach at a fruit shop, the event would be an instantiation of buy. we filled the slot for a buyer, the shop for seller, and the peach for the item bought. The schema thus acts as a pattern-recognition device.
2. The slots. The slots of a given schema can usually be filled with a fairly wide range of stimuli. The nose slot of the face schema can be filled with noses of varying sizes and shapes, and many distances from other parts of a face. The buy schema's slot for item sold can be filled with such stimuli as a car, insurance, the service of a plumber or a lawyer, a tuition at a university. The buyer slot can be filled with countless persons or with organizations such as a bank, an army, or a government. Finally, some slots can be filled in by default. Though we cannot actually perceive them in a given situation, our schema tells us that they are there.If we see two eyes glaring at us in the dark, we can infer from those eyes and our face schema that other parts are likely to be present. there is likely to be a nose, a mouth and a chin, and so values for these parts can be filled in by default. we can also infer that there is a body attached to the face from our body schema.
Similarly if we see someone leaving a grocery shop with a bag of groceries, we can fill in what probably just occurred from our buy schema. We can infer that the person handed over money for the goods.
3. Schemata are embedded within each other. Schemata are often organized into partonomies, each schema is a part of one and itself is composed of schemata. Look at the human body schema. it consists of parts such as face, arms, legs and trunk. Each can be considered a schema, as described before with face. Each of these becomes a part-whole relation to a more inclusive schema.They are part of it, just as a given tree is a part of a forest.
4. Schema represent knowledge of all kinds from simpler knowledge about the shape of the letter 'A', to more complex knowledge such as knowledge about scientific theory or political ideologies which are very abstract.
5. Various schema at different levels may be actively engaged in recognizing and interpreting new inputs. Bottom up and top down processes may go through repeated cycles, and the final interpretation of new inputs will depend on which schema constitutes the best fit from the incoming information. For example, if we see some people sitting on the grass we might first activate the picnic schema, but if further bottom up information shows banner instead of food, we might shift to 'demo' schema instead. in this case, the demo schema turns out to be the best fit and becomes the dominant or the most active schema.
Examples of schema
Howard (1987) gave some examples of schemata. First the schema of a human face. Like any schema, it consists of several parts or elements that are called 'varfiables' or 'slots'. The slots include lips, chin, nose, eyes, etc. The face schema prescribes that these parts be organised in a certain ways: the eyes are above the nose, the lips are below the nose and the chin is below the lips. If all of the parts are present but they are not arranged according to the prescribed way, the result would not be a face.
Another example is the schema of 'buy'. in an original form, it consists of several slots: a buyer, a seller, money (or some medium of exchange0 , and the item bought. These slots are arranged in a certain way. the buyer gives money to the seller, who then gives the item to the buyer. if these slots are arranged differently in a given situation, the the 'buy' schema doesn't apply to it. So, if a person A gives both money and an item to a person B and gets nothing in return, such an event would not be an example of buy. or if person A gives some items and gets nothing in return, the situation is an instance of 'give' or' rob' rather than' buy'.
Another example is the schema of 'buy'. in an original form, it consists of several slots: a buyer, a seller, money (or some medium of exchange0 , and the item bought. These slots are arranged in a certain way. the buyer gives money to the seller, who then gives the item to the buyer. if these slots are arranged differently in a given situation, the the 'buy' schema doesn't apply to it. So, if a person A gives both money and an item to a person B and gets nothing in return, such an event would not be an example of buy. or if person A gives some items and gets nothing in return, the situation is an instance of 'give' or' rob' rather than' buy'.
What is schema?
A schema can be defined as an organised body of knowledge, a mental structure that represents some part of some stimulus domain. A schema is a representation abstracted from experience, which is to understand the world and deal with it. It consists of a set of expectations about how part of the world is organised; these expectations are applied to categorize various stimuli.
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